Important Definitions

One of the challenges that everyone faces when beginning to study apologetics is understanding various definitions that are spoken and written in the literature. In this posting, I thought I'd take the chance to offer some definitions for your reference. In all likelihood I'll be adding to this list from time to time, so if you see something that should be here please feel free to let me know! Where possible, these definitions are taken from the http://www.wikipedia.org/ website.

Definitions

1. a posteriori - a Latin phrase that literally means "from the latter." It is used to refer to justification requiring empirical validation. For example, I can only know how many apples are in the refrigerator after I check.
2. a priori - a Latin phrase that literally means "from the former." It is used to refer to a justification that can take place prior to consulting any empirical evidence. For example, I know a priori that I exist.
3. Agnosticism - the view that the truth claims regarding the existence of God cannot be known. For example, "I do not believe it is possible to know whether or not there is a God."
4. Anthropic Principle - An attempt to explain away the Fine-Tuning Argument by acknowledging the fact that since we see the universe the way it is, we should not be surprised at its fine-tuning. According to this argument, if the universe were not fine-tuned to this degree then we would not be here to observe it.
5. Apologetics - comes from the Greek word apologia meaning "a speaking in defense".
6. Argument - a set of one or more meaningful declarative sentences or "propositions" known as premises along with another meaningful declarative sentence or "proposition" known as the conclusion.
7. Aseity - refers to the characteristic of being un-derived in contrast to being derived or dependent on another. God's aseity refers to his self-existence. He is not dependent on an outside force for his existence, as he was never created.
8. Atheism - the explicit view that there are no deities. For example, "I believe there is no God."
9. Axiom - a proposition that is not proved or demonstrated but considered to be either self-evident, or subject to necessary decision. Therefore, its truth is taken for granted and serves as a starting point for deducing and inferring other truths.
10. Begging the Question - a type of logical fallacy in which the proposition to be proved is assumed implicitly in one of the premises. In other words, the given argument depends on what it is trying to prove. For example, "I would do a great job of running the country because I am great Presidential material!"
11. Circular Reasoning - an attempt to support a statement by simply repeating the statement in different or stronger terms. For example, to say "you should get a job because having a job is good for you" is only really saying "you should get a job because you should have a job". For more information, see "Begging the Question".
12. Conflate - in logic, this is the practice of treating two distinct concepts as if they were one.
13. Cosmology - this is the study of the Universe in its totality.
14. Deductive Argument - an argument is said to be deductive when the truth of the conclusion is said to follow necessarily from (or be a logical consequence of) the premises.
15. Defensive Apologetics - this type of apologetics seeks to answer challenges to Christianity. Included here are such things as answering the problem of evil or the hiddenness of God.
16. Deism - a philosophical belief that a supreme natural God exists and created the universe, but that God does not intervene in the affairs of the universe.
17. Dualism - any of a variety of views about the relationship betwen mind and matter, which claims that mind and matter are two ontologically separate categories. In particular, it claims that neither the mind nor matter can be reduced to each other in any way.
18. Empiricism - a theory of knowledge which asserts that knowledge rises from real, tangible and provable experiences.
19. Epistemology - the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope (limitations) of knowledge. It addresses questions such as "What is knowledge?", "How is knowledge acquired?", "What do people know?", and "How do we know what we know?"
20. Equivocate - to be deliberatly ambiguous or unclear in order to mislead or withhold information.
21. Evidentialism - a theory of justification according to which whether a belief is justified depends solely on what a person's evidence is.
22. ex nihilo - a Latin phrase meaning "out of nothing". It often appears in conjunction with the concept of creation, as in creatio ex nihilo meaning "creation out of nothing."
23. Existentialism - a school of philosophy that begins with a sense of disorientation and confusion in the face of an apparently meaningless or absurd world. Existentialist thinkers focus on the question of concrete human existence and the conditions of this existence rather than hypothesizing a human essence.
24. Fallacy - an argument which may convince some people but is not logically sound.
25. Fine-Tuning Argument - the belief that a remarkably delicate balance between the small scale phenomena of atomic and nuclear physics and the large scale phenomena of astronomy and cosmology must exist for the universe to be hospitable to life.
26. Humanism (Secular) - a philosophy that upholds reason, ethics, and justice, and specifically rejects the supernatural and the spiritual as the basis of moral reflection and decision making.
27. Inductive Argument - reasoning which takes us "beyond the confines of our current evidence or knowledge to conclusions about the unknown." The premises of an inductive argument indicate some degree of support for the conclusion but do not entail it. For example, if we learn that ice is cold, we can induce that all ice is cold even though we have not tested all ice in existence.
28. Materialism - a school of philosophy which holds that the only thing which can be truly proven to exist is matter. Fundamentally, all things are composed of material and all phenomena (including consciousness) are the result of material interactions.
29. Metaphysics - investigates principles of reality transcending those of any particular science.
30. Middle Knowledge (a.k.a. Molinism) - the belief which holds that in addition to knowing everything that does or will happen, God also knows what would happen if he acted differently than he does.
31. modus ponens - a logical rule that takes a particular form (the section 'Examples' below for further details).
32. modus tollens - a logical rule that takes a particular form (see the section 'Examples' below for further details).
33. Molinism - a religious doctrine which attempts to reconcile the omniscience of God with human free will. Molinists hold that in addition to knowing everything that does or will happen, God also knows what would happen if he acted differently than he does. See also "Middle Knowledge".
34. Monism - the metaphysical and theological view that all is one, that all reality consists of a single basic substance or element. For example, the statement in Pantheism that "everything is God."
35. Mysticism - the pursuit of communion with, identity with, or conscious awareness of an ultimate reality, divinity, spiritual truth, or God through direct experience, intuition or insight.
36. Natural Revelation - the belief that God reveals himself through his creation, and that at least some truths can be learned by studying nature, physics, cosmology, etc.
37. Naturalism - a philosophical position that all phenomena can be explained in terms of natural causes and laws. In its broadest and strongest sense, naturalism is the metaphysical position that "nature is all there is and all basic truths are truths of nature".
38. Occam's Razor - the principle that the explanation of any phenomenon should make as few assumptions as possible, eliminating those that make no difference in the observable predictions of the hypothesis or theory. When multiple competing hypotheses are equal in other respects, this principles recommends selecting the hypothesis that introduces the fewest assumptions and postulates the fewest entities.
39. Offensive Apologetics - this type of apologetics makes a positive case for Christianity. It includes such things as offering evidence for God's existence, for the resurrection of Jesus Christ, etc.
40. Omnibenevolence - the property of being infinitely benevolent.
41. Omnipotence - the ability to do everything that is logically possible (in other words, it is logically impossible to make a square triangle).
42. Omnipresence - the property of being present everywhere.
43. Omniscience - the capacity to know everything infinitely.
44. Ontology - the study in philosophy of the nature of being, existence or reality in general, as well as the basic categories of being and their relations.
45. Pantheism - the view that everything is part of an all-encompassing immanent abstract God. In this view, the Universe, or nature, and God are equivalent.
46. Postmodernism - a philosophical direction that is skeptical or nihilistic toward many of the values and assumptions of philosophy deriving from modernity, such as humanity having an essence which distinguishes humans from animals. Most varieties state that there are no absolutes and everything is relative.
47. Rationalism - any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification.
48. Relativism - the idea that some elements of experience are dependent on other elements or aspects. A common relativistic statement is "That's true for you but not for me."
49. Revelation - the act of revealing or disclosing, or making something obvious and clearly understood through active or passive communication with the divine. Revelation can originate directly from a deity or through an agent, such as an angel.
50. Self-Refuting Idea - an idea or statement whose falsehood is a logical consequence of the act or situation of holding them to be true. For example, the sentence "All truth is relative" is self-refuting because the sentence itself is considered universally true (i.e. not relative).
51. Skepticism - the doctrine that true knowledge in a particular area is uncertain; an attitude of doubt either in general or toward a particular object.
52. Special Revelation - a theological term that states a belief that knowledge of God and of spiritual matters can be discovered through supernatural means, such as miracles or the scriptures.
53. Straw Man - an informal fallacy based on misrepresentation of an opponent's position. To "attack a straw man" is to create the illusion of having refuted a proposition by substituting a superficially similar proposition (the "straw man") and refuting it, without ever having actually refuted the original position.
54. Syllogism - a type of logical argument in which one proposition (the conclusion) is inferred from two others (the premises) of a certain form. A popular syllogism is known as "The Moral Argument". This syllogism is demonstrated in the 'Examples' section below.
55. Tautology - repetition of meaning, using different words to say the same thing twice, especially where the additional words fail to provide further clarity.
56. Teleology - the philosophical study of design and purpose. This school of thought holds that all things are designed or directed toward a final result, and that there is an inherent purpose or final cause for all that exists.
57. Theism - a belief in God such that God is single, supreme, and transcendent as well as remaining an active, immanent force in the universe.
58. Theodicy - the branch of philosophy that defends God's goodness and justice in the face of the existence of evil.

Entire dictionaries have been devoted to philosophical and theological definitions surrounding these topics. This list is not intended to be exhaustive, but is merely offered as an initial list of terms to help explain some of the basic apologetics concepts.

Examples

Below are examples of the two rules of logic defined above. These examples are provided to offer further clarity regarding these fundamental rules of logic.

modus ponens

The logical rule of modus ponens takes the form:

If P, then Q

P

Therefore, Q

For example:

If my alarm clock goes off, then it is time to go to work

My alarm clock has gone off

Therefore, it is time to go to work

modus tollens

The logical rule of modus tollens takes the form:

If P, then Q

Not Q

Therefore, not P

For example:

If the water is warm enough, then I will go swimming

The water is not warm enough

Therefore, I will not go swimming

The Moral Argument

A syllogism with the following form:

Premise 1: If God does not exist, then objective moral values do not exist

Premise 2: Objective moral values do exist

Conclusion: Therefore, God exists

Introduction to Apologetics

Since this is the very first entry, I thought it might be a good thing to offer some background basis for apologetics in the church. This post will also seek to provide some basic definitions

What is Apologetics, Anyway?

Before we can go anywhere, it's important to understand what apologetics in the first place. The American Heritage Dictionary defines apologetics as follows:

"The branch of theology that is concerned with defending or proving the truth of Christian doctrines."

This definition is taken from the Greek word apologia (απολογία), which means "a speaking in defense". To find this word used in the New Testament, look at 1 Peter 3:15-16, which says:

15But in your hearts set apart Christ as Lord. Always be prepared to give an answer to everyone who asks you to give the reason for the hope that you have. But do this with gentleness and respect, 16keeping a clear conscience, so that those who speak maliciously against your good behavior in Christ may be ashamed of their slander.

In this verse, we not only see that we are to be ready to give a reason (an apologia) for the hope that we have, but we are to do it with gentleness and respect. This is an essential concept to bear in mind as we meet non-believers and skeptics of our faith.

Why Study Apologetics?

Now that we understand apologetics, the next thing to address is "why apologetics?" This is especially important because of the number of people in Christian fellowships today who see no value in learning and practicing this discipline. In contrast to this position, consider the words of Dr. William Lane Craig. Dr. Craig is one of the leading Christian apologists living today. In his ministry, he has put together a defense of apologetics (an apologetic of apologetics, if you will). In his article God is Not Dead Yet Dr. Craig offers the following observation:

"Christians who depreciate natural theology because "no one comes to faith through intellectual arguments" are therefore tragically shortsighted. For the value of natural theology extends far beyond one's immediate evangelistic contacts. It is the broader task of Christian apologetics, including natural theology, to help create and sustain a cultural milieu in which the gospel can be heard as an intellectually viable option for thinking men and women. It thereby gives people the intellectual permission to believe when their hearts are moved."

To put it in other terms, apologetics helps us create a cultural climate in which belief in God is once again considered an intellectually viable option. While many people won't come to know Christ through an apologetic effort (though some do...consider the example of C.S. Lewis), an ability to provide solid reasons for the hope within us is essential so that Christianity remains a viable option in our culture.

But I Don't Know Any Atheists

Some people, when they first consider the study of apologetics, aren't aware of the extreme upswing in the popularity of atheism. In fact, this new movement has been called the New Atheism and touts popular names of leading scientists and philosophers such as Richard Dawkins, Daniel Dennett, Vitcor Stenger and Sam Harris. These men, along with many others, have in recent years devoted much time and effort into undermining the credibility of Christianity through a series of popular books, television interviews, and online websites and videos.

In commenting on this problem, Dinesh D'Souza wrote in his book What's So Great About Christianity the following:

"But a group of prominent atheists - many of them evolutionary biologists - has launched a powerful public attack on religion in general and Christianity in particular; they have no interest in being nice. A new set of anti-religious books - The God Delusion, The End of Faith, God Is Not Great, and so on - now shapes public debate."


If D'Souza is right, then we're in a war whether we like it or not. Like the aftermath of September 11, when America realized it was at war with an enemy it knew nothing about, Christians are under attack from a very well organized and deliberate foe. These self-professed atheists aren't simply content to reject God in their own lives. They are determined to reach us, our families, our friends, and our children to achieve the same ends.

In case further evidence is needed of this imminent threat, consider the following quotes from some of the leaders of the New Atheism movement:

“If I could wave a magic wand and get rid of either rape or religion, I would not hesitate to get rid of religion” - Sam Harris (Letter to a Christian Nation)


"God is a vindictive bloodthirsty ethnic cleanser , a misogynistic, homophobic racist, an infanticidal, genocidal, phillicidal, pestilential, megalomaniacal, sadomasochistic, capriciously malevolent bully" - Richard Dawkins (The God Delusion)

"If we compare a severely defective human infant with a nonhuman animal, a dog or a pig, for example, we will often find the nonhuman to have superior capacities, both actual and potential, for rationality, self-consciousness, communication, and anything else that can plausibly be considered morally significant." - Peter Singer (animal rights activist)

“The kindly God who lovingly fashioned each and every one of us (all creatures great and small) and sprinkled the sky with shining stars for our delight-that God is, like Santa Claus, a myth of childhood, not anything a sane, undeluded adult could literally believe in. That God must either be turned into a symbol for something less concrete or abandoned altogether.” - Daniel Dennett (Darwin's Dangerous Idea)

“Not only do we not have the originals, we don’t have the first copies of the originals…What we have are copies made later – much later…These copies differ from one another in so many places that we don’t even know how many differences there are. Possibly it is easiest to put it in comparative terms: there are more differences among our manuscripts than there are words in the New Testament…We have only error-ridden copies, and the vast majority of these are centuries removed from the originals and different from them…in thousands of ways.” - Bart Ehrman (Misquoting Jesus)

“My goal in this course is to knock God out of you. And if you don’t like it, I will give you a pass to drop the class.” - unnamed university professor



These quotes should frighten all Christians. It demonstrates that the enemy is very real and won't go away if we simply duck our heads and hope for the best.

So What Should We Do?

Simply this, prepare your mind. This is a very sound Biblical concept. We've already seen the quote from 1 Peter 3:15-16, but consider these additional verses:

He answered: " 'Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength and with all your mind'; and, 'Love your neighbor as yourself.'" - Luke 10:27 - 27

Therefore, I urge you, brothers, in view of God's mercy, to offer your bodies as living sacrifices, holy and pleasing to God—this is your spiritual act of worship. 2Do not conform any longer to the pattern of this world, but be transformed by the renewing of your mind. Then you will be able to test and approve what God's will is—his good, pleasing and perfect will. - Romans 12:1-2 - 1

There is no question that God wants our minds to be engaged. Unfortunately, we seem to be at a period of extreme decline in intellectual skills. Fewer and fewer people are rising to the challenge of preparing our minds for battle. But this is exactly what is needed today.

Preparing our Minds

So how do we prepare our minds? Consider this quote from the ancient Japanese General and Philosopher Sun Tzu. Quoting from his Book of War, we read:

“Know the enemy and know yourself; in a hundred battles you will never be in peril. When you are ignorant of the enemy, but know yourself, your chances of winning or losing are equal. If ignorant both of your enemy and yourself, you are certain in every battle to be in peril."

Better advice couldn't be offered today. What Sun Tzu is telling us is that we need not only to know ourselves, but to know our enemy. This means studying the works of writers like Richard Dawkins and Christopher Hitchens, listening to lectures by Christian Apologists such as William Lane Craig and JP Moreland, watching debates in order to understand the fine points of the arguments presented by both the theist and the non-theist. In doing this, we will come to know not only ourself, but our enemy as well.

Where Do I Start?

First of all, stay close to the Word of God and be fervent in prayer. The Bible is our ultimate source of truth and any day spent apart from it is a day in which the opportunity to deepen your understanding has been wasted. But, unfortunately, in today's climate, the Bible won't get us very far if the person we're talking to says "I don't believe in the Bible". What do we do then?

To help get in becoming prepared to deal with questions like the one above, I have provided a list of books and websites that I have found useful. This is not an exhaustive list by any means, but it provides a good foundation.

Recommended Books:

1. Reasonable Faith by William Lane Craig
2. There is a God by Antony Flew
3. I Don't Have Enough Faith to be an Atheist by Norman Geisler and Frank Turek
4. Why I Am a Christian edited by Norman Geisler
5. Why the Universe Is the Way It Is by Hugh Ross
6. Books by Lee Strobel: The Case for Faith, The Case for Christ, The Case for a Creator, The Case for the Real Jesus
7. Books by C.S. Lewis: Mere Christianity, The Problem of Pain, The Great Divorce
8. Can Man Live Without God? by Ravi Zacharias
9. The End of Reason by Ravi Zacharias
10. The God Who Is There by Francis Schaeffer

Recommended Websites:

1. www.reasonablefaith.org
2. www.rzim.org
3. www.carm.org
4. www.apologetics.com
5. www.str.org
6. www.reasons.org

Summary

The study of Christian Apologetics is a rich field to which many Christians devote their lives and careers. However, being a Christian apologist does not demand that we all get a Ph.D. in our respective fields. All it requires is that we engage our minds and be prepared to give a reason for the hope that is within us.

Whether we like it or not, nonbelievers are on the march and are engaged in efforts to discredit Christianity. If we, as believers, don't take up the challenge and learn to defend our beliefs rationally and convincingly (but with love), we stand to lose many battles and many more potential followers of Christ. The soul of our children, of our friends, and of our family is at stake. It truly is that serious.